Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Fourth Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Ludwig’s Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 8
Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 12
Preface to the Third Edition......Page 13
Foreword......Page 14
Acknowledgments......Page 15
Biography......Page 16
Disclaimer......Page 17
Using the Software and Excel Spreadsheet Programs......Page 18
COOLING TOWERS......Page 19
TRAY TOWERS......Page 20
DRYING OF SOLIDS......Page 21
FLUIDIZATION OF PARTICLES WITH GASES......Page 22
PARTICLE SIZE ENLARGEMENT......Page 23
REFRIGERATION......Page 24
VESSEL (PRESSURE)......Page 25
VESSELS (STORAGE TANKS)......Page 26
1.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE......Page 28
1.3 ROLE OF THE PROCESS DESIGN ENGINEER......Page 30
1.4 COMPUTER-AIDED FLOWSHEETING......Page 31
1.5 THE SEQUENTIAL MODULAR SIMULATION......Page 33
1.7 DEGREES-OF-FREEDOM MODELING......Page 36
1.8 ISOBUTANE CHEMICALS (iC4H10)......Page 37
1.9 FLOWSHEETS – TYPES......Page 42
1.10 FLOWSHEET PRESENTATION......Page 43
1.12 COMPUTER-AIDED FLOWSHEET DESIGN/DRAFTING......Page 44
1.13 OPERATOR TRAINING SIMULATOR SYSTEM......Page 45
1.14 FLOWSHEET SYMBOLS......Page 46
1.15 WORKING SCHEDULES......Page 66
1.16 INFORMATION CHECKLISTS......Page 68
1.18 SYSTEM DESIGN PRESSURES......Page 83
1.19 TIME PLANNING AND SCHEDULING......Page 84
1.20 PLANT LAYOUT......Page 92
REFERENCES......Page 94
FURTHER READING......Page 95
2.2 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATION......Page 96
2.3 EQUIPMENT COST ESTIMATIONS BY CAPACITY RATIO EXPONENTS......Page 98
2.4 YEARLY COST INDICES......Page 99
2.6 DETAILED FACTORIAL COST ESTIMATES......Page 101
2.7 BARE MODULE COST FOR EQUIPMENT......Page 105
2.8 SUMMARY OF THE FACTORIAL METHOD......Page 106
2.10 PROJECT EVALUATION......Page 107
REFERENCES......Page 128
WEBSITES......Page 129
3.1 DENSITY OF LIQUIDS......Page 130
3.3 VISCOSITY OF LIQUIDS......Page 131
3.4 HEAT CAPACITY OF GAS......Page 132
3.5 HEAT CAPACITY OF LIQUID......Page 133
3.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS......Page 134
3.8 SURFACE TENSION......Page 135
3.9 VAPOR PRESSURE......Page 136
3.10 ENTHALPY OF VAPORIZATION......Page 137
3.11 ENTHALPY OF FORMATION......Page 138
3.12 GIBBS ENERGY OF FORMATION......Page 139
3.13 SOLUBILITY IN WATER CONTAINING SALT......Page 140
3.15 HENRY’S LAW CONSTANT FOR GASES IN WATER......Page 141
3.16 SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN WATER......Page 142
3.18 SOLUBILITY OF NAPHTHENES IN WATER......Page 143
3.19 SOLUBILITY AND HENRY’S LAW CONSTANT FOR NITROGEN COMPOUNDS IN WATER......Page 145
3.20 COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUID......Page 146
3.22 ADSORPTION ON ACTIVATED CARBON......Page 147
3.23 DIFFUSION COEFFICIENTS (DIFFUSIVITIES)......Page 148
3.24 COMPRESSIBILITY Z-FACTOR OF NATURAL GASES......Page 151
3.25 GENERALIZED COMPRESSIBILITY Z-FACTOR......Page 152
3.26 GAS MIXTURES......Page 154
REFERENCES......Page 158
FURTHER READING......Page 159
4.2 FLOW OF FLUIDS IN PIPES......Page 160
4.3 SCOPE......Page 161
4.6 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW: VAPORS AND GASES [4]......Page 164
4.10 PIPE......Page 165
4.11 USUAL INDUSTRY PIPE SIZES AND CLASSES PRACTICE......Page 166
4.12 BACKGROUND INFORMATION (ALSO SEE CHAPTER 5)......Page 168
4.13 REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re (SOMETIMES USED NRe)......Page 170
4.14 PIPE RELATIVE ROUGHNESS......Page 173
4.15 DARCY FRICTION FACTOR, F......Page 174
4.16 FRICTION HEAD LOSS (RESISTANCE) IN PIPE, FITTINGS, AND CONNECTIONS......Page 181
4.20 L/D VALUES IN LAMINAR REGION......Page 184
4.22 LAMINAR FLOW......Page 185
4.23 LOSS COEFFICIENT......Page 188
4.24 SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT OR CONTRACTION [2]......Page 194
4.25 PIPING SYSTEMS......Page 195
4.27 FLOW COEFFICIENTS FOR VALVES, Cv......Page 198
4.28 NOZZLES AND ORIFICES [4]......Page 199
4.30 EQUIVALENT LENGTH CONCEPT FOR VALVES, FITTINGS AND SO ON......Page 214
4.31 FRICTION PRESSURE DROP FOR NON-VISCOUS LIQUIDS......Page 219
4.32 ESTIMATION OF PRESSURE LOSS ACROSS CONTROL VALVES......Page 223
4.33 THE DIRECT DESIGN OF A CONTROL VALVE......Page 226
4.35 FLOW OF WATER FROM OPEN-END HORIZONTAL PIPE......Page 227
4.37 FRICTION PRESSURE DROP FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW......Page 230
4.40 SONIC CONDITIONS LIMITING FLOW OF GASES AND VAPORS......Page 233
4.41 THE MACH NUMBER, MA......Page 235
4.43 FLOW RATE THROUGH PIPELINE......Page 236
4.44 PIPELINE PRESSURE DROP (DELTA P)......Page 237
4.45 CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO......Page 238
4.47 THE EXPANSION FACTOR, Y......Page 246
4.48 MISLEADING RULES OF THUMB FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW......Page 250
4.50 FRICTION DROP FOR FLOW OF VAPORS, GASES, AND STEAM......Page 252
4.51 DARCY RATIONAL RELATION FOR COMPRESSIBLE VAPORS AND GASES......Page 257
4.52 VELOCITY OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS IN PIPE......Page 260
4.53 ALTERNATE SOLUTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW PROBLEMS......Page 261
4.54 PROCEDURE......Page 264
4.55 FRICTION DROP FOR COMPRESSIBLE NATURAL GAS IN LONG PIPE LINES......Page 265
4.56 PANHANDLE-A GAS FLOW FORMULA [4]......Page 272
4.60 TWO-PHASE LIQUID AND GAS FLOW IN PROCESS PIPING......Page 274
4.62 FLOW REGIMES......Page 275
4.63 PRESSURE DROP......Page 277
4.64 EROSION–CORROSION......Page 279
4.65 TOTAL SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP......Page 280
4.66 PIPE SIZING RULES......Page 284
4.67 A SOLUTION FOR ALL TWO-PHASE PROBLEMS......Page 285
4.68 GAS–LIQUID TWO-PHASE VERTICAL DOWNFLOW......Page 291
4.69 PRESSURE DROP IN VACUUM SYSTEMS......Page 295
4.71 VACUUM FOR OTHER GASES AND VAPORS......Page 298
4.73 SLURRY FLOW IN PROCESS PLANT PIPING......Page 300
4.74 PRESSURE DROP FOR FLASHING LIQUIDS......Page 301
4.76 DESIGN PROCEDURE USING SARCO CHART [74]......Page 303
4.77 FLOW THROUGH PACKED BEDS......Page 304
NOMENCLATURE......Page 314
REFERENCES......Page 326
FURTHER READING......Page 328
SOFTWARE FOR CALCULATING PRESSURE DROP......Page 329
CHAPTER 5 PUMPING OF LIQUIDS......Page 330
5.1 PUMP DESIGN STANDARDIZATION......Page 331
5.2 BASIC PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP......Page 332
5.3 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SELECTION......Page 335
5.4 HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS......Page 338
5.5 SUCTION HEAD OR SUCTION LIFT, hs......Page 343
5.6 DISCHARGE HEAD, hd......Page 344
5.7 VELOCITY HEAD......Page 346
5.9 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH) AND PUMP SUCTION......Page 350
5.10 SPECIFIC SPEED......Page 357
5.12 PUMPING SYSTEMS AND PERFORMANCE......Page 359
5.13 POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR PUMPING THROUGH PROCESS LINES......Page 362
5.14 AFFINITY LAWS......Page 365
5.15 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP EFFICIENCY......Page 368
5.16 EFFECTS OF VISCOSITY......Page 369
5.17 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SPECIFICATIONS......Page 373
5.18 ROTARY PUMPS......Page 379
5.19 RECIPROCATING PUMPS......Page 382
NOMENCLATURE......Page 386
FURTHER READING......Page 395
6.2 PRELIMINARY SEPARATOR SELECTION......Page 398
6.6 TERMINAL VELOCITY......Page 400
6.7 ALTERNATE TERMINAL VELOCITY CALCULATION......Page 408
6.8 AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE’S OIL FIELD SEPARATORS......Page 409
6.10 DECANTER [25]......Page 413
6.11 IMPINGEMENT SEPARATORS......Page 416
6.12 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS......Page 427
NOMENCLATURE......Page 467
REFERENCES......Page 468
FURTHER READING......Page 469
CHAPTER 7 MIXING OF LIQUIDS......Page 472
7.2 IMPELLERS......Page 474
7.3 EQUIPMENT FOR AGITATION......Page 488
7.4 FLOW PATTERNS......Page 492
7.5 FLOW VISUALIZATION......Page 494
7.7 FLOW......Page 495
7.8 POWER......Page 497
7.10 MIXING TIME CORRELATION......Page 508
7.13 STEADY BEARINGS......Page 510
7.15 ENTRAINMENT......Page 511
7.16 BATCH OR CONTINUOUS MIXING......Page 512
7.17 BAFFLES......Page 522
7.18 BLENDING......Page 526
7.24 EFFECTS OF VISCOSITY ON PROCESS FLUID HEAT TRANSFER FILM COEFFICIENT......Page 528
7.25 HEAT TRANSFER AREA......Page 532
7.26 IN-LINE, STATIC, OR MOTIONLESS MIXING......Page 533
NOMENCLATURE......Page 547
REFERENCES......Page 548
FURTHER READING......Page 549
WEBSITES......Page 550
8.3 TYPICAL RANGE PERFORMANCE OF VACUUM PRODUCERS......Page 552
8.4 FEATURES......Page 553
8.5 TYPES......Page 554
8.7 VACUUM RANGE GUIDE......Page 556
8.10 PERFORMANCE FACTORS......Page 559
8.11 TYPES OF LOADS......Page 567
8.12 LOAD VARIATION......Page 578
8.14 EJECTOR SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS......Page 579
8.15 EJECTOR SELECTION PROCEDURE......Page 581
8.16 WATER JET EJECTORS......Page 583
8.18 EJECTOR CONTROL......Page 584
8.19 TIME REQUIRED FOR SYSTEM EVACUATION......Page 585
8.20 ALTERNATE PUMPDOWN TO A VACUUM USING A MECHANICAL PUMP......Page 586
8.21 EVALUATION WITH STEAM JETS......Page 587
8.23 LIQUID RING VACUUM PUMPS/COMPRESSOR......Page 589
8.25 ROTARY BLOWERS OR ROTARY LOBE-TYPE BLOWERS......Page 592
8.26 ROTARY PISTON PUMPS......Page 596
REFERENCES......Page 599
WEBSITES ON EJECTORS, VACUUM SYSTEMS, AND SCRUBBERS......Page 600
9.1 TYPES OF POSITIVE PRESSURE-RELIEVING DEVICES (SEE MANUFACTURERS’ CATALOGS FOR DESIGN DETAILS)......Page 602
9.2 TYPES OF VALVES/RELIEF DEVICES......Page 604
9.4 GENERAL CODE REQUIREMENTS [1]......Page 609
9.5 RELIEF MECHANISMS......Page 614
9.6 PRESSURE SETTINGS AND DESIGN BASIS......Page 615
9.7 UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSELS ONLY, BUT NOT FIRED OR UNFIRED STEAM BOILERS......Page 620
9.8 RELIEVING CAPACITY OF COMBINATIONS OF SAFETY RELIEF VALVES AND RUPTURE DISKS OR NON-RECLOSURE DEVICES......Page 621
9.9 ESTABLISHING RELIEVING OR SET PRESSURES......Page 623
9.11 CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS EVALUATION FOR PROCESS OPERATION (NON-FIRE)......Page 624
9.12 SELECTION FEATURES: SAFETY, SAFETY RELIEF VALVES, AND RUPTURE DISKS......Page 631
9.17 SIZING FOR GASES, VAPORS, OR LIQUIDS FOR CONVENTIONAL VALVES WITH CONSTANT BACK PRESSURE ONLY......Page 634
9.18 ORIFICE AREA CALCULATIONS [42]......Page 637
9.20 SIZING VALVES FOR LIQUID RELIEF: PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVES NOT REQUIRING CAPACITY CERTIFICATION [5D]......Page 639
9.22 CALCULATIONS OF ORIFICE FLOW AREA USING PRESSURE RELIEVING BALANCED BELLOWS VALVES, WITH VARIABLE OR CONSTANT BACK PRESSURE......Page 643
9.23 SIZING VALVES FOR LIQUID EXPANSION (HYDRAULIC EXPANSION OF LIQUID FILLED SYSTEMS/EQUIPMENT/PIPING)......Page 647
9.24 SIZING VALVES FOR SUBCRITICAL FLOW: GAS OR VAPOR BUT NOT STEAM [5D]......Page 649
9.27 SET PRESSURES FOR EXTERNAL FIRES......Page 652
9.29 SURFACE AREA EXPOSED TO FIRE......Page 653
9.33 PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE ORIFICE AREAS ON VESSELS CONTAINING ONLY GAS, UNWETTED SURFACE......Page 655
9.37 CALCULATION OF RELIEVING AREAS: RUPTURE DISKS FOR NON-EXPLOSIVE SERVICE......Page 657
9.39 SELECTION OF BURST PRESSURE FOR DISK, Pb (TABLE 9-3)......Page 658
9.40 EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON DISK......Page 659
9.42 GASES AND VAPORS: RUPTURE DISKS [5a, PAR, 4.8]......Page 660
9.45 SIZING FOR COMBINATION OF RUPTURE DISK AND PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE IN SERIES COMBINATION......Page 662
9.47 BASIC VENTING FOR LOW PRESSURE STORAGE VESSELS......Page 665
9.49 CORRECTIONS TO EXPRESS MISCELLANEOUS LIQUIDS VENTING IN TERMS OF FREE AIR (14.7 PSIA AND 60 degree F)......Page 667
9.52 NORMAL CONDITIONS......Page 671
9.54 FLAME ARRESTORS......Page 673
9.56 EXPLOSIONS......Page 674
9.57 FLAMMABILITY......Page 675
9.58 TERMINOLOGY......Page 678
9.59 MIXTURES OF FLAMMABLE GASES......Page 679
9.60 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS......Page 681
9.63 BLAST PRESSURES......Page 683
9.66 BLAST SCALING......Page 689
9.67 EXPLOSION VENTING FOR GASES/VAPORS (NOT DUSTS)......Page 693
9.68 BLEVES (BOILING LIQUID EXPANDING VAPOR EXPLOSIONS)......Page 694
9.70 RELIEF SIZING: EXPLOSIONS OF GASES AND VAPORS......Page 695
9.71 VENT OR RELIEF AREA CALCULATION [10] FOR VENTING OF DEFLAGRATIONS IN LOW-STRENGTH ENCLOSURES......Page 700
9.72 HIGH-STRENGTH ENCLOSURES FOR DEFLAGRATIONS......Page 702
9.73 DETERMINATION OF RELIEF AREAS FOR DEFLAGRATIONS OF GASES/VAPORS/MISTS IN HIGH-STRENGTH ENCLOSURES......Page 703
9.74 DUST EXPLOSIONS......Page 705
9.75 DUST EXPLOSION CHARACTERISTICS......Page 706
9.76 EVALUATING THE HAZARD......Page 709
9.78 THE VDI NOMOGRAPH METHODS......Page 715
9.80 REGRESSION ANALYSIS FROM THE KST NOMOGRAPHS......Page 716
9.81 EQUATIONS TO REPRESENT THE NOMOGRAPHS......Page 717
9.82 THE VENT RATIO METHOD......Page 722
9.84 VENTING OF BINS, SILOS, AND HOPPERS......Page 724
9.86 SECONDARY DUST EXPLOSIONS IN BUILDINGS......Page 726
9.88 DUST EXPLOSION SEVERITY......Page 727
9.89 PREVENTING, MITIGATING, AND PROTECTION AGAINST DUST EXPLOSIONS......Page 728
9.91 EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION......Page 731
9.95 RUNAWAY REACTIONS: DIERS......Page 733
9.96 HAZARD EVALUATION IN THE CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES......Page 741
9.99 ACCUMULATION......Page 742
9.101 HEAT CONSUMED HEATING THE VESSEL: THE PHI-FACTOR......Page 743
9.105 VENT SIZING PACKAGE......Page 744
9.106 VENT SIZING PACKAGE 2™(VSP2™)......Page 745
9.107 ADVANCED REACTIVE SYSTEM SCREENING TOOL......Page 746
9.108 TWO-PHASE FLOW RELIEF SIZING FOR RUNAWAY REACTION......Page 747
9.110 VAPOR-PRESSURE SYSTEMS......Page 748
9.113 SIMPLIFIED NOMOGRAPH METHOD......Page 749
9.115 VAPOR-PRESSURE SYSTEMS......Page 753
9.117 GASSY SYSTEMS......Page 755
9.119 TWO-PHASE FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE......Page 756
9.123 DIRECT DISCHARGE TO THE ATMOSPHERE......Page 757
9.125 FLARES/FLARE STACKS......Page 759
9.126 FLARES......Page 760
9.127 SIZING......Page 762
9.129 FLAME DISTORTION [5C] CAUSED BY WIND VELOCITY......Page 764
9.130 FLARE STACK HEIGHT......Page 766
9.131 PURGING OF FLARE STACKS AND VESSELS/PIPING......Page 768
9.132 STATIC ELECTRICITY......Page 770
9.134 DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW FOR DISCHARGE PIPING......Page 771
9.135 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z......Page 773
9.138 DISCHARGE REACTIVE FORCE......Page 774
9.139 A RAPID SOLUTION FOR SIZING DEPRESSURING LINES [5C]......Page 775
9.140 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY (HAZOP) STUDIES......Page 776
9.141 STUDY CO-ORDINATION......Page 777
9.142 HAZOP OF A BATCH PROCESS......Page 778
9.144 HAZARD ANALYSIS (HAZAN)......Page 779
9.145 FAULT TREE ANALYSIS......Page 781
9.146 INHERENTLY SAFER PLANT DESIGN......Page 782
GLOSSARY......Page 785
NOMENCLATURE......Page 788
REFERENCES......Page 790
FURTHER READING......Page 793
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 796
APPENDIX A A LIST OF ENGINEERING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS AND PROCESS DATA SHEETS......Page 798
APPENDIX B......Page 846
APPENDIX C PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND GASES......Page 854
APPENDIX D......Page 890
APPENDIX E......Page 962
APPENDIX F......Page 976
APPENDIX G ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES......Page 984
APPENDIX H NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES......Page 990
APPENDIX I SCREENSHOT GUIDE TO ABSOFT COMPILER GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE......Page 1004
INDEX......Page 1012